That has now changed. The documentation platform Promptless has published DoGBench (Documentation Generation Benchmark), the first benchmark that tests whether AI agents can produce user-facing documentation that an experienced technical writer would accept in review. The short answer: not yet. (Source: Promptless)

How the benchmark works

DoGBench consists of 292 tasks drawn from real open source projects such as Helm, PostHog and Mautic. In 205 of them the documentation needs to change: new content, updates or the removal of outdated passages. In the other 87, the right answer is to leave the documentation alone.

Each agent receives the repository as it was before the change, plus a trigger such as a code change or a reported documentation gap. It has to decide for itself whether users are affected and whether the documentation needs updating at all. The results are scored against detailed criteria developed together with the projects’ maintainers: accuracy, completeness, reader guidance, placement, style and the project’s conventions. Anyone who makes a critical error cannot score more than 60 out of 100 for that task, however polished the rest is.

The results: polished, but not reliable

Seven combinations of AI model and agent software were tested. The best one reached a score of 47.3 out of 100. Even more revealing are the details:

• Knowing when to update is hard. Some agents documented internal changes that are irrelevant to users. Others missed necessary updates because there was no existing page on the topic. For tasks that needed no change, the agents got it right between 28.6% and 85.7% of the time.
• Readers get stuck. In an audit of 1,267 submissions, 45.5% had a gap that would stop readers from completing their task, such as a missing prerequisite, step or verification.
• Errors are hard to spot. 36.6% contained technical inaccuracies. These are often subtle: a misstated default value, or a conditional behaviour presented as universal. Reviewers who only skim will easily miss them.
• Few results are usable without errors. At best, 39% of the delivered texts were free of critical errors.

According to the researchers, the problems start before writing begins, in the investigation. The agents often stopped at the first plausible page, filled gaps with assumptions, or described an interface without checking how readers actually use it.

What this means for your technical documentation

The study confirms what we see every day at Lexsys: good documentation is not about well-written sentences. It comes from understanding who the readers are, what they want to achieve, and which information they need for it. That knowledge is often not in the code itself.

AI agents can be a useful aid, for example for first drafts or for finding the pages a change affects. But their output needs expert review. The authors of the study recommend checking every AI draft from the reader’s point of view:

• Can readers find the information, complete the steps and verify the result?
• Does every technical statement hold, and under which conditions?
• Do related pages contradict the new content, or are they now out of date?

This applies all the more to multilingual documentation. Every error in the source text multiplies with each translation.

Our conclusion

DoGBench gives documentation managers solid evidence for the conversation with management: AI can speed up documentation, but it cannot yet replace professional technical writers. The best results come from combining the two, with AI as a tool and experts who make sure the documentation really helps readers.

Would you like to use AI in your documentation process without losing quality? Find out how we can help with your technical documentation.

And we’re explicitly talking about investment here, because the value of technical documentation goes far beyond explaining how a product works. Your technical documentation: 

• Has a significant impact on the user experience, 
• Contributes to your brand image and 
• Is your company’s calling card on the international market.

Substandard, mistake-ridden, or poorly translated technical documentation can damage your reputation, leading to high costs as the result of more service requests, product returns and, in extreme cases, even claims for damages. 

In this article, we discuss the costs you should expect, the common billing methods for technical documentation, and the factors that influence the price of creating technical documentation. 

Billing methods for technical documentation 

Of course, no two projects are the same. However, reputable service providers usually bill according to the following two approaches: 

• Billing by the page 
• Billing by the hour 

Below, we give a brief introduction to these two methods and explain which system we prefer at Lexsys.

Technical documentation: billing by the page 

With billing by the page, a rough flat rate is set for each page of documentation created. This rate is based on the respective provider’s experience and depends on whether a page needs to be researched completely from scratch or whether an existing document, for example the manual of a previous model, simply needs to be updated. 

What are the disadvantages of this system? If the provider hasn’t budgeted enough time for a page, errors or ambiguities may creep into your technical documentation due to time and cost pressures, which will subsequently lead to more enquiries to your customer support. 

With this billing method, less scrupulous providers might also try to spread the content unnecessarily over several pages.  

Technical documentation: billing by the hour 

At Lexsys, we consider billing by the page to be opaque and no longer appropriate. That’s why we offer our customers billing by the hour.

Because we use modern authoring tools, such as a Component Content Management System (CCMS), we no longer talk about individual pages. 

Instead, we create technical documentation based on small building blocks that can be output in various formats by the software – for example, as a printed user manual or an online help page. 

This saves time and reduces your technical documentation costs. 

What factors determine the price of technical documentation? 

Technical documentation costs greatly depend on the product and the associated legal requirements. Different requirements apply to a simple household appliance, such as a microwave, than to a CNC machine. 

Consequently, the following issues also determine the costs of technical documentation:  

• How complex is the product? 
• What are the market requirements for the product? 
• Who is the technical documentation for and how many documents are required? 
• Does similar documentation already exist? 
• Are a lot of illustrations needed? 
• Are additional services required, such as linguistic software testing or localization into other languages? 

At Lexsys, you therefore always receive a customized quote for your needs. We take the following six factors into account: 

1. Target audienceYour technical documentation’s target audience is a key cost factor, because the more complex the subject area, the higher the technical documentation’s value – and the greater the demands on the technical writer.So, when preparing a quote, the important questions are: Is your technical documentation for an end user, a software developer, or an engineer? Is in-depth research needed? And what are the product’s legal requirements? 
2. DeliverablesThe price is also influenced by the deliverables required. Will you take care of the editing, layout, and production yourself, or would you like to outsource these steps to a service provider like us? What format should the technical documentation be delivered in? Do you need a print-ready PDF, or files in HTML, or an ePUB format? Do you use a modern editorial system? 
3. Source materialsThe more information you can provide us with in advance, the more efficiently we can create your technical documentation. These source materials include:
   • A list of product functions 
   • Functional specifications 
   • Access to a trial version of your product 
   • Access to your company’s technical specialists 
   • Your corporate design, such as branding (logos and other design elements), tone of voice, etc.
4. Turnaround timeA tight schedule or delayed provision of the above materials can drive up the cost of your project as well as compromise the quality of the work. That’s why we recommend that our customers allow sufficient time for the preparation of their technical documentation. This is particularly important if additional services, such as translation into other languages, are required. 
5. Fact checkingFactual accuracy is a fundamental requirement for technical documentation. Errors in a user manual can cost manufacturers dearly, as they are liable for any misuse that arises as a result.For this reason, review and approval processes are an integral part of our quality process. But the more cycles of feedback and correction your project requires, the more expensive it will be. You therefore need to ensure that the documents you provide us with are already checked and factually correct. 
6. TranslationIf you wish to sell your product outside your home market, you may be required to translate the technical documentation into the languages of your target markets, or it may provide an important market differentiator. As a full-service provider, we’re happy to support you with this. The additional costs incurred are calculated based on the following:

• The number of languages required 
• The word count of the source text 
• The required delivery date for the translation

 For translation, customers are usually billed on a per-source-word rate. The exact price per word depends on the complexity of the text and the language it’s translated into. 

Translating the user manual for a common household appliance from English to German, for example, is cheaper than translating the installation instructions for a complex production machine for the automotive industry from German to Japanese. 

As a technical translation service provider, we work primarily with experienced specialist translators, and the pool of qualified translators may be limited depending on the language combination and the subject of the technical documentation.

What can you expect from Lexsys? 

As you can see, the question of the exact costs of technical documentation can only be answered once all the factors above have been clarified.

However, investing in your technical documentation is much more than just a cost factor. You’re not merely paying for a user manual; you’re also investing in your company’s reputation and your customers’ experience.

The result? Fewer support requests and more satisfied customers – and lower costs and higher profits as a consequence.

When choosing a provider, therefore, look at more than just the price. Consider the whole package.

At Lexsys, we use modern authoring systems based on the DITA standard. The advantage is that we can produce your source data in different file formats, which ultimately saves you money.

As a full-service provider, in addition to creating your technical documentation, we can also take care of linguistic software testing and the localization of your documentation into other languages. We’re also a certified SAP partner.

Our international team of native English and German speakers will be happy to assist you.

Would you like to find out more about how Lexsys can support you with your technical documentation? Contact us today to set up a consultation. 

And you’d be right to wonder. Word-processing programs like Microsoft Word are powerful tools for a variety of tasks – unfortunately, creating and managing your technical documentation is not one of them. 

In this article, we discuss five reasons why you shouldn’t manage your technical documentation in Word and suggest some better alternatives that will save you time and money, not to mention stress. 

The 5 main disadvantages of MS Word for technical documentation (TD)  

1. Laborious version control 

Also known as versioning, accurate version control is one of the key requirements for technical documentation. Product and software manufacturers have a legal obligation to ensure a version control system is in place. They need to record and be able to track every product change. 

Word-processing programs such as Microsoft Word don’t adequately meet these requirements. It is theoretically possible to set up version control in the cloud version of Word, but this rarely works in practice. File-storage processes and standards must be defined and implemented. But the more complicated a system, the more prone it is to errors. Can you ensure that everyone involved has the discipline needed to stick to the established file storage procedures? If this cannot be guaranteed, a far better option is to choose software specifically designed for this application scenario, as this will prevent errors, and their consequences, from the very outset. 

2. Unrestricted file access 

Do you really know who has access to your technical documentation? Is it everyone in the company? Just a specific group? What about the trainee? Are all these users allowed to make changes or even delete files? 

Even if your technical documentation is stored in the cloud, it’s often possible for an employee to download the file, edit it, and then upload it again. This will also lead to problems with change tracking and version control.

3. Risk of data loss 

Unrestricted file access and a lack of user rights management, as outlined above, also increase the likelihood of data loss. It’s very easy to delete or accidentally move a file or folder to another folder, for it never to be seen again. 

4. Inconsistencies in style and layout 

The numerous formatting options in word-processing programs are one of their most helpful and popular features. Users can customise the text size, font, line spacing, and much more besides. 

However, when it comes to the creation and management of your technical documentation, there’s no room for users’ personal preferences. 

Why not? The Machinery Directive (2006/42/EC), for example, stipulates that signal words referring to safety risks in user manuals, such as DANGER, WARNING, or CAUTION, must always be written in capital letters and without exclamation marks. 

Your technical writer is familiar with these standards and guidelines, but it’s possible that a different user, who perhaps changes this formatting according to their own preferences, is not. This situation can be avoided by using a tool that has been designed precisely for this purpose and which automatically suggests the correct formatting to authors, as in the case of the signal words mentioned above.   

Your technical documentation also reflects your company’s branding. You should therefore ensure that team members cannot dilute the look and feel of your documents.

5. Layout and formatting issues post-translation 

Manufacturers who wish to sell their products abroad must translate their technical documentation into the target language of the countries in question. 

A translated Word file can quickly turn into a nightmare for the DTP Team creating the layout. This is particularly true if the source text has been poorly formatted and paragraphs have been indented with tabs or spaces, for instance. 

Your text will vary in length, depending on the language. The English version will probably be shorter than the German, while the Spanish will tend to be longer. In this case, the translation will shift the entire layout and your DTP specialists will need to spend a lot of time manually formatting each separate document. 

Fortunately, there are now some great alternatives for creating and managing your technical documents. Read on to find out more.

The advantages of Content Management Systems (CMS) 

A Content Management System (CMS) for technical documentation, not to be confused with website CMS, is database-driven software in which content is created, edited and managed collaboratively. Content modules are created once and can then be reused as needed. 

A CMS is far superior to a word-processing program and offers manufacturers and technical writers a wide range of benefits:

• A single source of truth: Centralised data storage ensures that all authorised users have access to the same, up-to-date dataset. This avoids redundant or duplicate datasets.  
• Versioning: Any data changes are saved in the CMS history and can even be undone if necessary. 
• Different access rights: In a CMS, users can be assigned different roles with different permissions, such as administrator, editor or reader. This increases file security. 
• Fewer sources of error: Reusing content that has been created and reviewed once reduces the chance of errors. 
• Compilation of documents using individual modules: The modules can be put together like pieces in a jigsaw, making the creation of similar documents, such as product updates, a breeze. 
• Publication in a range of target formats: Content in a CMS can be published as a PDF, as online help or even as a chatbot. 

Using a CMS can bring a range of great benefits. But, as the amount of content and number of technical illustrations and languages increase, these solutions reach their limits. So, what’s the answer? Component Content Management Systems (CCMS).

Component Content Management Systems (CCMS)  

What are Component Content Management Systems (CCMS)? 

A Component Content Management System (CCMS) is a Content Management System which manages content at the component level, rather than the document level. Components are small information modules, such as a single illustration, a table or a product description, which can be combined and reused in any way. 

The advantages of a Component Content Management System 

Let’s explain the benefits of a CCMS by considering a practical example. Imagine you’re a German coffee machine manufacturer and you have two almost identical models – one with and one without a milk frother – which you want to sell in ten European countries. 

In a CCMS, each content module only needs to be created once. In other words, as the manufacturer, you simply write one general user manual for both models. The only sections that need to be separately created are those places where there are differences between the models, such as the product illustrations, delivery information and the instructions for using and maintaining the milk frother. 

In this way, both user manuals can be translated with minimal effort into ten languages. All the necessary content modules can be easily exported into a translator-friendly format. Once translated, this data is stored in the CCMS and is available immediately. 

With a single click, 20 complete user manuals in ten languages can be generated from these content modules, with minimal effort from the technical writer, and with lower operating costs for the company. 

Manufacturers who work with a CCMS reduce the workload for the technical writer, the DTP team and the translation coordinator. Further benefits include:

• Lower production costs 
• Lower translation costs 
• Faster processes 
• Agile working

In addition to version control, a system such as this offers many other advantages: 

• Information can be easily reused 
• Content is easy to locate 
• Versioning 
• Standardised layout 
• Separation of content and layout 
• Language management 
• Improved access for people with visual impairments 
• Direct feedback with HTML output 
• Quality assurance 
• Automation 
• Possible use of AI, such as chatbots 

Lexsys: The partner you can rely on for flawless technical documentation  

For newcomers to technical documentation, a word-processing program such as Microsoft Word may seem like the obvious choice. Everyone knows how to use it, and documents can be created quickly. 

However, the more complex your requirements become, the more poorly this type of software will perform. A lack of version control and the unrestricted access to files increase the likelihood of data loss, inconsistencies in style and layout, and formatting issues resulting from translation. 

Standalone solutions such as Adobe FrameMaker provide some of the same advantages as a CCMS. However, Component Content Management Systems (CCMS) are undoubtedly a better solution and offer manufacturers tremendous benefits. 

At Lexsys, we are happy to support manufacturers in creating, managing, and translating their technical documentation in a CMS or CCMS. Our project managers are well-versed in have a wealth of experience with systems of this kind and can provide you with expert advice in line with your needs. 

Would you like to find out more about how Lexsys can support you with your technical documentation? Contact us today to set up a consultation.

• What exactly is technical documentation?
• Why do we differentiate between internal and external documentation?
• Why do you need to take various target audiences into account?
• What legal requirements and standards are there to consider?
• What does a technical writer actually do?
• What tools do you need?
• And how can you get your technical documentation translated?

In our latest blog, we’ll provide easily understandable answers to these questions and more.

What is technical documentation?

Technical documentation (TD, also known as “product documentation”) comprises all types of documents relating to technical devices and software products. Whether online or on paper, they describe how to safely use, maintain, and/or repair such equipment.

Technical documentation is always designed for a particular purpose. In basic terms, it’s meant to enable the respective target audience – be it users, technicians, or sales engineers – to do what they need to do. It also gives manufacturers a means of protecting themselves from liability claims and fulfilling all their legal obligations.

As a general rule, we distinguish between internal and external technical documentation:

• Internal technical documentation provides an archive of all product-relevant documents. Such documents include specification sheets, test reports, risk assessments, and blueprints.
• External technical documentation, on the other hand, tells operators and users how to do things like assemble, install, use, and maintain a given product.

Who is the technical documentation for? 

This is the most important question manufacturers have to answer before writing their TD: Who is our target audience? Instead of compiling a 400-page tome that addresses absolutely everyone’s needs, it’s best to create a separate document for each group.

Before you get started, think about what actions are required throughout the lifecycle of the product and who will be responsible for them. Put together a brief overview of all this information. Here’s what this might look like based on the example of a CNC lathe machine:

• Planning: people affiliated with the manufacturer
• Transport: shipping company
• Installation: people affiliated with the manufacturer
• Programming: CNC cutting specialist, programmer
• Use: CNC cutting specialist
• Maintenance: CNC cutting specialist
• Repairs: CNC cutting specialist, service technician
• Disassembly…

In this setting (which Dietrich Juhl describes in the book Technische Dokumentation^*1), the CNC cutting specialist doesn’t need to know how the machine is transported or installed. What is relevant, however, are the instructions on programming, use, and maintenance.

According to Juhl, there should thus be eight different manuals for the CNC machine’s various target groups:

• Planning documentation
• Transport instructions
• Installation and commissioning instructions
• Operating instructions
• Programming manual
• Three sets of service documentation (mechanical, hydraulic, electrical)

What norms and legal requirements do you need to observe?

The people in charge of writing laws are known to be rather particular about safety. Products therefore need to be designed accordingly and present no danger to people’s well-being. In cases where risks can’t be ruled out entirely, manufacturers are required to provide relevant warnings and notices.

This is why technical documentation is subject to a wide range of norms and legal requirements, a selection of which follows:

• DIN EN 82079-1 is a norm for the creation of usage instructions. Among other things, it covers communication quality, risk mitigation, and the form and content of user manuals. It also includes free checklists that help ensure corresponding compliance. This norm should be part of any technical writer’s basic toolkit.
• EU Directive 2006/42/EC (the “Machinery Directive”) requires manufacturers to provide operating instructions in their own language (and others, if applicable) that take users’ level of knowledge and comprehension ability into account.
• The VDI 4500 standard covers various aspects of technical documentation, from terminology, organisation, and administration to the planning, design, and creation of actual documents.
• The DIN EN ISO 7010 norm presents a uniform standard for safety signs that eschews text in favour of language-independent, universally understandable signage.
• ANSI Z535 is the US norm for safety information. While it isn’t relevant for products brought to market in Europe, it is of interest to manufacturers that export machines and other devices to the United States.
• Other countries may have other regulations, such as Germany’s legislation on product safety (ProdSG), which represents the country’s implementation of EU Directive 2001/95/EC.

In addition, further regulations apply to different product groups and regions, such as the German legislation on medical products (MPG) or EU Directive 2006/95/EC (regarding low-voltage electrical equipment).

What role do technical writers play?

You might think that creating technical documentation is another task handled by engineers themselves, but it’s actually the job of technical writers. These specialists have the ability to explain complex functions and situations in ways that are easy for the respective target group to understand. They often have a direct line to the manufacturer’s development team, as well.

That said, technical documentation is obviously not the same as ad copy or other marketing materials: writing product descriptions, glossy brochures, and flyers that drive sales requires additional skills.

Technical writers who are also well versed in creating copy can handle both areas. Those who aren’t, can work with copywriters on such projects:

• The technical writer ensures that all the technical facts provided are correct.
• The copywriter comes up with attractive texts that encourage readers to make a purchase.  

To learn more about the benefits of having technical writers and copywriters collaborate, check out the article How Technical Writers Fit into the Marketing Mix.

What software and tools do you need for your technical documentation?

Managing all your technical documentation can present another challenge. Manufacturers need to document in detail every functional change in their products and ensure that all their external documentation is updated accordingly. This is why Lexsys advises against managing technical documentation in Microsoft Word or other word-processing programs.

How suitable are component content management systems for technical documentation?

In recent years, content management systems (CMS) have gained popularity as a means of simplifying the creation, maintenance, and publication of TD. Even more interesting for product manufacturers, however, are component content management systems (CCMS), which are capable of storing not just documents, but individual pieces of information, as well.

These “components” can include diagrams, charts, product descriptions, or processes. They can also be as small as a single word or as extensive as an entire document.

At the heart of such systems are various document formats – DITA, for example, an XML-based architecture for creating, distributing, and reusing technical information.

How can you translate technical documentation?

Companies that want to sell their products abroad need to have their technical documentation adapted for each target country. According to the German technical communication society tekom (link in German), nearly half of all technical documents are translated into more than 10 languages.

These days, there are very few manufacturers left that have their own translators and localisation teams, which is why many of them assign such work to external translation agencies. The best agencies offer manufacturers an array of advantages because they:

• Handle all aspects of project management
• Work with a pool of highly qualified technical translators
• Offer excellent quality assurance based on ISO certification
• Possess industry-specific expertise

A professional translation agency can advise manufacturers on all matters related to the translation of technical documentation, including the pros and cons of machine translation and related post-editing – that is, having human experts review machine-translated texts.

Since the translation market is unregulated and somewhat cluttered, manufacturers should take a close look at several different providers before choosing the one they want to entrust with their technical documentation.

Here are some examples of criteria you should focus on:

• ISO 9001 certification (quality management)
• Positive customer feedback
• Transparent processes and prices
• Professional translators who work in their native language

Where can you find useful resources on this subject?

If you want to find out more about technical documentation, further helpful information is available here:

• VDI standards: Access publications on the various standards issued by the Association of German Engineers (VDI).
• tekom: The website of the world’s largest professional association for technical information offers information (in German) on specialist conventions, industry events, further training opportunities, and much more.
• ¹Technische Dokumentation: Praktische Anleitungen und Beispiele by Dietrich Juhl, Springer Vieweg, 2015. Written primarily for technical writers, this guide provides many useful tips on creating various types of instructions.

Lexsys: the partner you can rely on for flawless technical documentation 

The world of technical documentation can seem daunting for manufacturers of software and devices. The requirements they face include:

• Ensuring compliance with legal specifications and norms
• Taking various target groups into account
• Finding a technical writer to create their documentation
• Managing, maintaining, and publishing this content
• Having the documentation translated, if applicable

Ticking all these boxes – and doing it well – is no easy task. At Lexsys, we’ve spent years helping manufacturers pull it off and would be happy to guide you through all the issues related to technical communication, from the costs and software involved to the actual creation and translation of your documentation.

Do you need support with your technical documentation? Contact us today to set up a consultation.

In this article, we’ll cover the following:

• What chatbots are and how they work 
• The benefits they offer  
• What makes a good chatbot 
• The technical and linguistic challenges they present. 

What exactly is a chatbot, anyway? 

As the word suggests, a chatbot is a type of robot that can chat with people online and answer questions they either type in or speak out loud. State-of-the-art chatbots use artificial intelligence for this purpose. 

These days, it’s hard to imagine everyday life without chatbots. They often pop up in the corner of your web browser, offering to help with your urgent queries. You see them in messaging applications like Facebook Messenger or WhatsApp, and they also take the form of digital assistants like Apple’s Siri or Amazon’s Alexa, who promise to make our lives easier in various ways.  

How does a chatbot work? 

There are basically two types of chatbot: 

• Rule-based chatbots are programmed to match specific answers to specific questions. They don’t actually understand language, however, which significantly limits the ways in which they can be used. To parse a user’s written or spoken question, they break it down into its individual components and process them according to set rules while accessing a database to come up with an appropriate response. 
• AI chatbots, on the other hand, make use of natural language processing (NLP). This means they understand user input and keep learning from it, which helps them constantly improve. Besides answering simple questions, they can also set up and cancel appointments and even send out invoices on their own. 

The advantages of chatbots 

Chatbots can be a boon to companies and customers alike. While they’re no substitute for personal customer service, they are great at supplementing such activities. In fact, chatbots offer a variety of benefits: 

• Not only can they support customers in a similar way to human employees; they can do this around the clock, including outside normal business hours. 
• They can lighten the load on customer service employees by answering frequently asked questions. 
• They communicate with customers via the channels they prefer and often pool the resulting data in a central repository (a CRM system, for example) that can be accessed by employees from different departments. 
• They qualify leads and ensure that only potential customers with real promise are forwarded on to employees in sales. 

What makes a good chatbot? 

If your company wants to take advantage of chatbots, they’ll need to meet certain requirements. A potential customer who keeps getting the response “Sorry, I’m afraid I can’t help you with that” will soon take their business elsewhere. 

Computational linguistics and natural language processing 

As we touched on above, intelligent chatbots guided by AI are capable of processing natural language. They understand and can simulate both written and spoken human speech, and can even carry out simple automated tasks.

The expertise needed to make this a reality can be found in the area where linguistics and computer science overlap, which is why it’s referred to as computational linguistics or linguistic data processing. 

An AI chatbot starts by turning human input into statements and intentions. Once it has identified the purpose of a given message, it determines an appropriate response and provides it to the user. This process is then repeated until the conversation ends.

Natural language processing essentially follows the same procedure, with slight variations depending on the model at hand. The Saarbrücker Pipeline Model, for instance, consists of six steps: 

1. Speech recognition: Spoken input is first converted into text.
2. Tokenization: Each sentence of input is divided into words and groups thereof.
3. Morphological analysis: Personal forms and case markers are analyzed and words are reduced to their basic forms.
4. Syntactic analysis: The individual words are analyzed to determine their structural function (subject, object, article, verb, and so on).
5. Semantic analysis: Meaning is attributed to the sentences or parts thereof.
6. Dialog and discourse analysis: The relationships between the consecutive sentences are identified.

Dealing with grammar mistakes and typos 

As if all that weren’t enough, chatbots also need to be able to handle input that contains errors in grammar or spelling and spoken input from non-native speakers with accents, as well as from people who talk in a local dialect. Not everyone speaks the Queen’s English and when typing in a hurry on a phone, one’s fingers don’t always find the right letters. 

How chatbots combine linguistics and technology 

Thanks to advances in deep learning and machine learning, the algorithms chatbots run on are now much better (and faster) at comprehending human speech and the intentions behind it. 

Let’s take a look at a simple example: weather forecasts. There are myriad ways to ask what you can expect in the days ahead: 

• “How’s the weather going to be tomorrow?”
• “Is it going to rain tomorrow?”
• “Will it rain on Tuesday?”
• “Will I need my umbrella tomorrow?”
• “What’s the chance of rain tomorrow?”
• “Any rain tomorrow?”

Along with an extensive vocabulary that covers all the relevant situations, a chatbot needs to be familiar with a wide range of syntactic structures, various modes of expression, and different registers – from laid-back to strictly formal. In the case above, the bot will also require information regarding the user’s location. 

All this means that chatbots need access to a comprehensive database of sentences that mean the same thing, but use different phrasing. A compendium like this takes time to build, as well: A good chatbot should know at least 50 expressions for a given intention. 

Meanwhile, there are two types of linguistic experts who play key roles in designing chatbots and making them user-friendly: 

• Conversation designers give chatbots a voice, shape the progression of their dialog, and compose the texts they use. They also determine the personality of each bot by choosing whether to give it a sense of humor, the ability to use slang, and formal or informal responses.
• Computational linguists are the ones who lay the groundwork for chatbots. They develop the lexical resources a chatbot uses in a particular language. In this context, the term “lexicon” refers to both the entire vocabulary of the language in question and the specific terms used by the company and industry in question. In other words, a chatbot for a car dealer will be very different from one used by hair salons.

Lexsys: the partner you can count on in chatbot projects  

Here at Lexsys, we can provide you with a wide variety of content and language services that will support you in dealing with your communication-related challenges. We speak your customers’ language and can help you make sure your message gets across just as it should – including in the automated responses your chatbots provide.

We’d love to hear what your experience has been with chatbots and what you think of them in general. Perhaps you’d like to leave us a comment below…?

Want to learn more about how Lexsys can help you overcome the challenges chatbots present? Get in touch with us today, and we’ll be happy to set up a consultation.

However, this division of labor doesn’t necessarily benefit the consumer, and it isn’t a very efficient approach for companies, either. Instead, they should try to bridge the gap that often exists between technical writing and marketing in order to pool their resources and tap into related synergies. Collaborating more closely in these areas also aids in designing more effective marketing copy and more user-friendly technical documentation.

What’s the difference between technical communication and copywriting?

While technical documentation and marketing texts are both geared toward consumers, each has to meet the varying expectations of different target groups:

• Customers (or anyone who makes purchasing decisions):
  To appeal to this group, you need creative content that clearly demonstrates the added value of your product or service and gives people a positive feeling about it. This is traditionally a job for copywriters and other marketing specialists.
• Users of products or services: These readers want to obtain technical information in a clear, precise format that enables them to get started as quickly as possible. Technical writers have a knack for explaining complex operating structures in ways that are easy to understand.

While technical communications are created for a narrowly defined user group with particular needs, copywriters often produce content for a diverse target audience. The style favored for these types of material differs accordingly:

• Technical documentation is clear, concise, and logical. It therefore features short sentences, simple words, and uniform terminology.
• Good marketing and advertising copy is vivid and dynamic. Using longer sentences and illustrative language, it seeks to establish an emotional connection with the reader.

How technical writers and copywriters complement one another

If you’re looking to implement a more efficient content strategy, you should rethink the traditional line between these two domains. Marketing copy and technical documentation can actually enhance one another in very persuasive ways.

Consider this example:

A manufacturer of wireless doorbells commissions a technical writer to create an operating manual for one of its new models. The writer proceeds to compile a clinical, factually accurate guide that is then included with every purchase.

After buying one of these doorbells, a customer takes a look at the user manual but loses interest after the first few sentences and decides to install the doorbell on their own. They unwittingly make a mistake in the process, however, and the bell doesn’t work. Disappointed, they contact the manufacturer’s customer support department. The situation results in a frustrated customer and unnecessary costs for the seller.

Consumers’ expectations for a given product are the highest when they find themselves alone with it for the first time. Companies can use this phase to shape the perception of their brand with compelling content and establish closer ties with customers.

Now, let’s rewind the above scenario and have the technical writer collaborate on the doorbell manual with a professional copywriter. A marketing expert like this can provide creative input to give the guide a bit more pep and make it more appealing to the reader. Meanwhile, the technical writer is there to make sure all the facts and terminology are correct. Together, they come up with a manual that actually encourages users to read it all the way through.

When marketing specialists and technical writers work hand in hand, they can highlight the value of a product in a way that’s both practical and user-oriented. This makes a user manual (for example) a key component of the marketing mix. After all, it’s also a form of advertising that’s sure to reach the customer directly.

In this ideal scenario, the company in question has both in-house technical writers and an internal marketing department. But many small and medium-sized firms have their technical documentation and marketing copy created by external service providers, and they usually aren’t the same agency.

This can lead to problems: When the writers need to have complex processes explained by technical experts, for instance, there are often delays, and key information can get lost. Holding separate briefings for writers in different organizations also entails more effort and higher associated costs. And finally, there’s always the risk that writers will come up with content that sounds great but happens to be complete nonsense from a technical point of view.

How both sides benefit  

A collaborative effort between these two realms doesn’t just benefit the technical side, either. A copywriter who understands the technology behind complex products can also create more convincing marketing material. Once they have been trained to do so, technical writers can influence the marketing process by advocating for the user’s perspective, as well.

The advantages of a cooperative approach are clear:

• Faster, more efficient content creation
• Less friction between the two sides
• Opportunities to enhance marketing copy with practical use cases
• User documentation that serves as a marketing tool

If you don’t have the option to create such content yourself, it’s definitely a good idea to find a service provider that specializes in both technical documentation and marketing copy. You’ve already come to the right place in Lexsys: Our growing team of experienced marketing experts and technical writers will work side by side to ensure that all the material they produce meets (or even surpasses) your high expectations.

We’d be thrilled to be your one-stop shop for everything from technical marketing to technical translations. The specialists at Lexsys have many years of combined experience in both technical writing and text production in general. Why not take advantage of these valuable synergies yourself?

If you’d like to learn more about how Lexsys can assist you in creating both technical and creative content, get in touch with us today to set up a consultation.

In this article, we’ll explain how you can improve your international technical documentation (TD) by keeping things as simple as possible in both the original language in question and subsequent translations.

Convey technical information in simple ways – in any language 

According to tekom (article in German), at least 45 percent of technical documentation is now translated into more than 10 languages. That can result in some significant costs and also require a lot of administrative effort.  

You probably know what it’s like to read through an instruction manual and come away feeling like you know even less than before. Imagine what it’s like to create a technical translation of an arcane tome like that! Ideally, a translator has the opportunity to get all kinds of questions answered during this process, which helps ensure a comprehensible end result. In the worst case, documents like these are translated practically word-for-word and leave their international readers scratching their heads. Taken to the extreme – in the field of medicine, for instance – unintelligible or ambiguous TD can even have very serious ramifications. 

With some prior planning, however, you can streamline this process, reduce the costs involved, and achieve a better overall user experience.

A good technical translation starts with a clearly written source text  

To achieve the goals outlined above and make life easier for those who need to use your TD, you first need easily understandable technical documents that were written with their eventual translation in mind. This is where it helps to use a controlled language like ASD Simplified Technical English in original documents. The simpler a source text is, the less effort it takes to produce a quality translation that’s just as clear. This naturally results in a faster, more cost-effective translation process while also accelerating your time to market. 

What is a controlled language? 

A controlled language is a restricted form of a natural language. Unlike plain language, which is used in all areas of life, a controlled language is specifically designed to optimize communication in technical documentation. This concept plays an important role in achieving greater efficiency in documentation procedures and making guides, manuals, and similar materials as accessible as possible to all their respective target groups. 

Different rules apply to different languages, but two things that controlled languages generally have in common are simplified grammar and a limited vocabulary. 

Other typical characteristics include the following:

• Active form (not passive) 
• Simple tenses 
• Short words and sentences 
• Unambiguous vocabulary (every term has only one meaning) 
• Consistent terminology 
• Generally used terms (no technical jargon)

Technical English: lingua franca in international contexts 

Since English is the language of science and business at the global level, it takes precedent in international technical communication. The demand for technical translations into English is constantly rising as a result. At the same time, product documentation in English is often intended for not only native speakers, but people with limited knowledge of the language, as well. The latter readers are the ones who typically find complex subjects difficult to grasp. 

This is where Simplified Technical English comes in. It’s designed to make texts more readable and aid non-native speakers in focusing on the content that counts instead of being thrown off by intricate sentence structures or specialist lingo. It differs quite a bit from technical English, which is used in international industry-internal communications and does feature elaborate technical terminology. There’s technical English for fields like electrical engineering, machine construction, and information technology, for example. 

STE, meanwhile, was developed in the 1980s to help standardize communication in the aerospace sector and thereby achieve a higher level of safety. Over time, the basic principles of this controlled language were applied to communication in other industries and languages.  

The aims of Simplified Technical English are as follows: 

• Avoid ambiguity 
• Facilitate the understanding of non-native speakers 
• Make the translation process faster and more cost-effective 
• Enable the use of automated translation tools 

Creating technical documentation that gets the message across takes specialized skills and outstanding knowledge of the language in question. Even a minor mistake can lead to major problems that cost a great deal of money – or even lives.  

There are a number of controlled language checkers and authoring memory systems that facilitate the efficient creation of texts in line with specific rules. Language technologies like these make it possible to scrutinize terminology, spelling, grammar, and style in targeted ways. If you’d rather entrust such important documents to a living, breathing professional, however, our technical writers and technical English translators are standing by to assist. Lexsys has a broad range of experience in creating technical documentation in a variety of languages and application areas. 

Do you want to have your technical documentation polished to a shine by the experts? Give us a call or send us a message and we’ll discuss how we can make your technical texts and translations both accurate and reader-friendly.

What is “plain language”? 

During your time at school, you most likely crossed paths with a teacher who told you to write with as much variety as possible: lots of adjectives, different sentence structures, no repetitions of the same words, and so on. This runs somewhat counter to the words of Cicero – a rather well-known wordsmith of his day – who once said, “When you wish to instruct, be brief.” 

When writing outside of the classroom, might we suggest trusting a famous Roman orator rather than your well-meaning English teacher? In most cases, your target audience will consist of average Joes and Janes who mainly want information in short order. Creative narrative landscapes and acrobatic prose are all well and good in literature, but not in website content, newsletters, or manuals. If you want your writing to be easily understood, leave out the technical jargon and legalese, as well. 

Plain language is meant to give readers all the information they need as quickly and simply as possible. Meanwhile, there’s an even clearer form of expression known as “simple language”. Both of these language concepts originated in the plain language movement, which emerged in the United States in the late 1960s. At that time, many U.S. citizens had had enough of the convoluted ways in which governmental agencies communicated and began demanding more straightforward information. 

The difference between simple language and plain language 

In German, the two language concepts differ in terms of their respective target groups. Simple language (leichte Sprache) is specifically geared toward people who face challenges learning – due to difficulties in reading, dementia, or a simple lack of German language skills, for example. To make things as understandable as possible for these readers, you have to boil your information down to what’s essential. 

Unlike plain language, simple language is established in German law. This means that the country’s federal authorities are required to provide their information in simple language to ensure barrier-free communication. In doing so, they follow a defined set of rules (link in German). 

Plain language, meanwhile, is designed for a much larger segment of the population. Germany is home to an increasing number of people who seldom read, or mainly read short texts. It’s often difficult for these readers to understand complicated material.  

Plain-language texts are more complex than those written in simple language, but still try to avoid overwhelming the reader. In contrast to simple language, there are no official rules on plain language in Germany. It is based on a number of basic principles that are meant to improve text comprehension. 

Guidelines for plain language 

Plain language is meant to reflect the everyday language used by the target group in question. Instead of imitating the language of your readers, you need to write so they can follow what you mean without issue. If your target audience consists of specialists, you don’t have to worry about including some technical terms. Texts intended for laypersons, on the other hand, should avoid that type of jargon. 

Here are some more tips on how to simplify your texts using plain language. 

1. Word choice and sentence structure 

• Avoid using foreign-language words and other uncommon terms. If there’s no way around them, explain what they mean. 
• Keep the structure of your sentences simple. Try not to use parentheses or subordinate clauses. Having more than two commas in a sentence tells the reader that things are getting complicated. 
• Use adjectives sparingly. They’re often unnecessary or not all that objective. In most cases, omitting them won’t obscure the message of your text. 

• Try to stick with verbs. Steer clear of substantivizations and compound nouns. When compounds are necessary, use hyphens to make sure their meaning is clear. Consider the difference between “a study on 10-year-old children” and “a study on 10 year-old children”, for instance.  
• Avoid modal verbs like should, could, and would. 
• Limit each sentence to 14 words. You can formulate sentences of varying length without going over that number. 
• Be wary of the passive voice and negation. Address your readers using positive, straightforward sentences.  
  Ambiguous: Going for a walk after 8:00 p.m. is not prohibited.  
  Clear: You may go for a walk after 8:00 p.m. 

2. Clarity of content 

• Give your text a logical structure. Answer the five Ws (who, what, when, where, and why), leave out non-essential information, and make sure your sentences have a coherent flow. 
• One thought per sentence; one idea per paragraph. This guideline promotes comprehension and helps readers identify important passages when skimming a text. 
• Write with purpose. It might sound banal, but it’s important to use the same terms for the same things and different terms for different things. Avoid synonyms – and metaphors, for that matter. 
• Make sure your text doesn’t require prior knowledge. Give your readers all the information they need to understand your message. 
• Write in a descriptive way. Using clear language will make your text more understandable. Opt for “processor” instead of “CPU”, for instance, and choose examples that speak to your readers’ experience. 

• Repeat key information. This will make it more likely to register with your audience. 
• Be aware of things that often frustrate readers. These include technical or financial jargon, legalese, hipster slang, and neologisms in general. 

3. The visual aspect 

• Structure your writing. Avoid monolithic blocks of text by using short paragraphs interspersed with informative subheadings and structured lists. 
• Make use of illustrations. Present your information using vivid and intuitive diagrams, timelines, pictograms, and other such elements. 
• Charts are also great for making comparisons or listing figures. 

Plain language in multilingual texts 

Even native speakers often find it hard to forgo their usual style of writing in order to produce simpler texts. When it comes to foreign languages, you’re definitely better off calling in a professional – one who can boil your content down to its core messages and express them as clearly as possible in the target language. At Lexsys, our experts are familiar with all the nuances that go into creating texts for various target groups in international markets. They know what it takes to reach out to your intended audience with a message that can’t be missed. 

If you need help formulating a text in plain English (or a variety of other languages), why not get in touch with us? Our multilingual copywriters and -editors have extensive experience in creating and revising content for a wide range of readerships. We’d be happy to assist you in making your texts fully accessible to people in other countries. 

Correcting texts you’ve written yourself isn’t entirely unproblematic, however. After all, the more familiar you are with a particular text, the more difficult it tends to be to recognize mistakes in it. This is why proofreading your own texts requires a great deal of attention. 

To find out how you can track down those last remaining flaws, simply read on.

Why is it so hard to proofread your own texts? 

Since we perceive words in their entirety, our brains recognize their meaning after identifying just a few letters. This means we skip over entire sections of words when reading – and often miss the typos and other spelling mistakes they sometimes contain. We’re also capable of reading jumbles of letters that barely resemble the words they usually spell. If you’ve never tried it yourself, check out this example from the internet:  

“It deosn’t mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.”

When we revise a text we’ve written ourselves, the fact that we already know what it’s about makes things even more difficult. Our eyes see what they expect to and not what’s actually on the paper or screen. 

So, what can you do to make sure your written work isn’t memorable for the wrong reasons? We’ll let you in on some pro tips that will help you improve your own texts.

Nine ways to proofread your own texts the right way 

Before you start 

1. Take a break before revising a text 

Professional authors recommend putting a text down for a few hours (or ideally overnight) before proofreading it. Stepping away for a time will give you the chance to look at your text with fresh eyes, which should help you spot more mistakes. 

2. Print your texts out 

Studies have shown that we focus more when reading on paper compared to on-screen. It thus makes sense to proofread hard copies of your texts whenever possible. Plus, you’ll then be able to make notes with ease (about words you need to look up, for example).

3. Make sure you’re not disturbed 

When revising a text, you’ll want to avoid distractions. Switch your phone to silent, turn down the radio, and close the door. The best way to start is by reading your text out loud, which will help you read more slowly and attentively. You’ll also be more likely to recognize grammar mistakes, missing commas, and overly complicated sentences. 

4. Get to know the common sources of errors 

When proofreading, pay special attention to the areas in which mistakes are often made. Besides basic spelling errors, problems like words that can be written differently (“toward” vs. “towards”, for example) or the use of hyphens instead of en dashes are things to watch out for. 

While proofreading 

5. Ignore the content for now

Unlike content editing (which involves examining a text’s style and subject matter), proofreading is purely technical in nature. In other words, you should leave the content aside and concentrate on mistakes that disregard accepted norms or rules. If you find it hard to ignore the content of your text, these tricks can help:

• Read the text backwards (from the last word to the first). 
• Proceed one line at a time using a ruler to obscure the correlations in the text.  

6. Take the time to go over your text several times

Read through your text repeatedly, focusing on a different facet each time – formatting, word choice, syntax, spelling, punctuation, facts, data, and so on. That will help you pinpoint specific problems. 

After proofreading 

7. Make use of digital tools 

Once you’ve finished proofreading your text on paper, don’t forget to check it again on a computer. The find-and-replace function of your word processing program can be helpful in fixing common mistakes like missing (or extra) spaces after periods and commas. You should definitely have your software run its automated spelling and grammar check, as well. 

If you write texts fairly often (such as for a blog), it’s worth investing in a tool like Papyrus Author, which enables you to check aspects like sentence length and readability in addition to spelling and grammar. Hemingway Editor offers similar functions. 

To correct e-mails and other online texts, you can install a corresponding add-on in your browser. The proofreading tool Grammarly is a very popular option for English texts. For other languages, LanguageTool is a solid choice. 

8. Read your entire text through one last time

To make sure you haven’t added any new mistakes, you should go through your text once more from beginning to end after you finish proofreading it. In doing so, pay close attention to proper sentence structure and formatting. 

9. Bring in a fresh set of eyes 

When it comes to guaranteeing that a text is free of errors, nothing is better than a sharp-eyed assistant. If possible, have a friend or colleague read through your text before you sign off on it. If no one is available, you can always call on a professional proofreader. 

The experts at Lexsys will be happy to polish your texts to a shine before you send or publish them. Our proofreaders and content editors are native speakers in a wide range of languages. Get in touch with us if you’re interested in our professional services!

Trained writers know that producing a quality text just isn’t that simple; it takes planning, strategy, and creativity. Non-experts can also write good texts, of course, but in most cases, they need a lot more time than a professional would.

This article will tell you which types of text really benefit from the skilled hand of an experienced ghostwriter. 

Leave your important writing to a professional 

If your company doesn’t have an experienced writer on staff, you should outsource content such as press releases and blog articles to a writing service. This is even more important when it comes to assets in multiple languages.

As often as you might hear “Your English is great!” from your international business partners, your own language skills probably don’t compare to those of a native copywriter. Furthermore, a non-expert usually can’t produce the same level of quality as a trained business ghostwriter. If the quality of your content isn’t up to par, your message won’t get through.

Business ghostwriters handle the creation of texts without taking authorial credit, which is why they are in such demand among executives. By leaving your content to a professional writer, you’ll present yourself and your company in the best possible light

Seven types of copy that are best left to a ghostwriter 

Do you need presentations in English to get potential customers abroad excited about your products? Have you been invited to give a keynote at an international conference and need help writing it in English? Or is it maybe time to expand your online presence in English and you’re looking for a ghostwriter who’s well-versed in SEO tactics?

All these scenarios are common at global companies. They’re also all good reasons to hire a writing service.

Here’s an overview of the types of content that are better left to a professional writer: 

1. Company websites and profiles 

These days, global companies simply have to have an English-language website. It’s important to resist the temptation to handle this yourself or entrust it to an English-speaking employee. Web content needs to promote trust and help produce conversions, and there are a number of best practices to follow in this regard.

Meanwhile, your website also needs to prevail against its competitors online. Its content thus needs to be recognized and deemed relevant by search engines. A business ghostwriter can help you create professional texts that appeal not only to human readers, but to the likes of Google, as well. 

2. Blog articles 

Corporate blogs are a great way to increase brand awareness and attract future customers. By providing content in English, you can multiply these effects. It is, after all, the most-used language online according to Statista (at nearly 26%).

The important thing is to post blog articles that constitute unique content. This offers your target groups real value and increases your site’s relevance from a search engine perspective. Having an SEO copywriter optimize your English-language blog can also improve your Google ranking among English speakers – and your sales prospects along with it. 

3. Social media content 

With more than one-third of the world’s population is now active on social networks, companies that don’t use social media are forgoing one of the most cost-effective ways to strengthen their brand recognition.

It might seem easy enough to type out a few lines for Facebook or Instagram, but using social media for business is something else entirely. It turns out that attracting attention isn’t as easy with customers as it is with your Aunt Kathy. You need to find a ghostwriter with experience in international social media marketing who knows how to post content that draws eyes and promotes user engagement. 

4. Presentations, talks, and pitches 

When you give presentations, talks, or pitches, you want to exude professionalism. It’s about convincing others of the skills you have, after all. By relying on expertly crafted texts, you can boost your credibility. You’ll also have the confidence that comes with knowing your words – and the general tone of your presentation – will always be on point. 

5. Speeches and keynotes 

Boring speeches have lulled more than a few auditoriums into a deep sleep. Even in your native language, it’s not easy to write a motivational keynote or a compelling speech! A ghostwriter can help you write speeches in English that your audience will really respond to and remember for some time to come. 

6. Press releases and articles 

Press releases are the most commonly used medium in public relations. By writing your releases in English and distributing them through corresponding press outlets, you can drastically increase the reach of your information.

Press reports are an art form because certain conventions have to be followed. Since these can vary by country and publication, it’s a good idea to bring a professional writer on board with experience in journalism or PR. 

7. Specialist articles 

Publishing an article in an international trade journal can help burnish your reputation among your colleagues. To make sure they don’t end up snickering instead, you should have the English text itself produced by a native writer. You can then rest assured that your expertise will come across as it should to your audience. 

Reap the benefits of having a multilingual business ghostwriter 

Have you come up with some ideas on how your company could start producing better texts? If so, all you need is the right ghostwriter for your purposes!

At Lexsys, our team includes a number of different multilingual writers who can help you create professional copy for a variety of media and channels. Get in touch with us today to find out how you can use our writing service to raise your profile.